Python-Grundnotiz

Table of content

Overview of Python
Basic syntax
Datatypes
- 3.1 Bool
- 3.2 Numeric
- 3.3 List
- 3.4 String
- 3.5 Tuple
- 3.6 Dictionary
- 3.7 Set
- 3.8 Type conversion
Control statements
- 4.1 IF statement
- 4.2 FOR loop
- 4.3 WHILE loop
- 4.4 ELSE clause
- 4.5 BREAK statement
- 4.6 CONTINUE statement
- 4.7 PASS statement
Comprehension
- 5.1 List comprehension
- 5.2 Dict comprehension
- 5.3 Set comprehension
Function
Overview of Python

Python: High-level, interpreted, general and multi-paradigm programming language

Python is suitable for science, data analysis & Finance

Well-designed syntax
Trade-off between rapid development & performance
Ecology of libraries for the fields
- Science: NumPy, SciPy, Statsmodels, iPython Notebook...
- Machine Learning: Scikit-learn, Theano, pylearn2...
- NLP & Text processing: NLTK, Gensim, Spacy...
- Finance: pandas, TA-lib, Zipline...

Some famous services using Python:

Instagram
Rackspace
Spotify
Google
Dropbox
Reddit...
For full list of Python Success Stories: https://www.python.org/about/success/

Recently, Python is also used in trading

Open platforms for Algorithmic Trading intensively supporting Python
- Quantorian
- Quantiacs...
There are a large number of Quantitative Analyst, Developers & companies using Python for Finance
- Quantstart
- DX Analytics...

Lesson from Quora

Traditional development process:
- Researchers using Matlab, R, SAS for experiment
- Engineers convert experimental code to Java or C for production
Process with Python: a good intermediate option
- Do experiments with Python
- Perform some refactoring on experimental code for production
Ref: 10 more lessons learned from building Machine Learning systems, Xavier Amatriain@Quora, The Machine Learning Conference

Basic syntax

2.1 Your first program in Python

print('Hello world')

Hello world

2.2 Indentation

Python uses leading spaces to distinguish level of codes, instead of BEGIN..END, { } or other markers as in other languages.
The leading spaces for indentation may be SPACE or TAB.

a = 3
if a > 0:
    print('Positive')
else:
    print('Negative')

Positive

def sum(a, b):
    result = a + b
    return result

print(sum(5, 8))

2.3 Semi-colon is not required at the end of each command

a = 5
b = 9
c = a * b
print(c)

2.4 snack_case should be use for naming

width_of_rect = 5
height_of_rect = 4
area_of_rect = width_of_rect * height_of_rect
print(area_of_rect)

def get_area(width, height):
    return width * height
print(get_area(5, 4))

2.5 Comments

Use # to comment out one line of code
Use triple-quoted string to comment out multiple lines

# Calculate area of a rectangle
area_of_rect = width_of_rect * height_of_rect

p = (width_of_rect + height_of_rect) * 2   # perimeter of the rectangle

'''
Calculate area of a rectangle.
It is the multiplication of the width & the height
'''
area_of_rect = width_of_rect * height_of_rect

"""
Calculate perimeter of a rectangle.
It is twice of the sum of width & height
"""
perimeter_of_rect = width_of_rect * height_of_rect

2.6 Operators

Arithmetic operators

a = 5
b = 3
a + b    # 8 (Addition)
a - b    # 2 (Subtraction)
a * b    # 15 (Multiplication)
a / b    # 1 (Division)
4.3 / 2  # 2.15
a // b   # 1 (floor division)
4.3 // 2 # 2.0
a % b    # 2 (Modulus)
a ** b   # 125 (Exponentiation)

125

Comparison operators

a > b  # True
a <= b # False
a < b  # False
a >= b # True
a == b # False
a != b # True

True

Bitwise operators

a = 27   #11011 
b = 14   #01110
a & b    #01010 = 10(Bitwise AND)
a | b    #11111 = 31 (Bitwise OR)
a ^ b    #10101 = 21 (Bitwise XOR)
~a       #111..11100100 = -28 (Bitwise inversion)

-28

Shift operators

a = 27   #0011011 
a >> 2   #0000110 = 6 (Shift right)
a << 2   #1101100 = 108 (Shift left)

108

Datatypes

3.1 Bool

Bool datatype in Python can take 2 value True and False

a = (5 == 6)
a

False

b = (5 == 5)
b

True

type(a)

bool

Operations on boolean values

a and b

False

a or b

True

not a

True

3.2 Numeric

int

a = 100
type(a)

int

a = 10 ** 10
a

10000000000

type(a)

int

b = 10 ** 100

type(b)

long

import sys
sys.maxint

9223372036854775807

long Python works hard to support unlimited integer values through long datatype

unbound_value = 10 ** 100000

type(unbound_value)

long

another_unbound_value = 2 ** 10000000  
# not enough space & time to print out this huge value

type(another_unbound_value)

long

float

a = 3.432

type(a)

float

b = a ** 334.32
b

1.1070478028957259e+179

type(b)

float

sys.float_info

sys.float_info(max=1.7976931348623157e+308, max_exp=1024, max_10_exp=308, min=2.2250738585072014e-308, min_exp=-1021, min_10_exp=-307, dig=15, mant_dig=53, epsilon=2.220446049250313e-16, radix=2, rounds=1)

10 / 3  # integer division

To retrieve float value from integer division

10.0 / 3

3.3333333333333335

10 / float(3)

3.3333333333333335

Infinity value

infinity = float("inf")

infinity / 3

inf

infinity * 100

inf

3.3 List

Creating list

List is a sequence of other items

list_of_ints = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8]
list_of_strings = ['one', 'two', 'three']

A list in Python may contain items from different types, and even nested list.

mixed_list = ['a', 1, 2.323, ['sublist', 3, ['nested_list', 2.5]]]

Accessing list

my_list = [1, 3, 7, 2, 10]  # List in Python is 0-based

len(my_list)

my_list[0]  # the first item
my_list[4]  # the last item

Access the last item

my_list[-1]

A sublist can be accessed through a slice operator :

my_list[i:j] will extract a sublist with items from i^{th} to (j-1)^{th}

# [1, 3, 7, 2, 10]
my_list[1:3]  # Get items 1th -> 2th

[3, 7]

[:j] returns a sublist starting at the beginning to (j-1)^{th}

my_list[:3]  # Get items 0th -> 2th

[1, 3, 7]

[i:] returns a sublist starting from i^{th} to the end

# [1, 3, 7, 2, 10]
my_list[2:]  # Get items 2th -> 4th (end of the llst)

[7, 2, 10]

Omiting both of the index will return the whole list

# [1, 3, 7, 2, 10]
my_list[:]

[1, 3, 7, 2, 10]

All items except the last one

my_list[:-1]

[1, 3, 7, 2]

Advanced slice operator:

[i:j:k]: slice from i^{th} to (j-1)^{th} with step k
Reverse an array

# [1, 3, 7, 2, 10]
my_list[::-1]

[10, 2, 7, 3, 1]

Check the existence of items in list

x in list : check the existence (boolean)
x not in list : check the non-existence (boolean)

# [1, 3, 7, 2, 10]
10 in my_list

True

15 in my_list

False

Iterating list

# [1, 3, 7, 2, 10]
for item in my_list:
    print(item)

1 3 7 2 10

sum = 0
for i in range(len(my_list)):
    sum += my_list[i]
sum

Note that a nested list is just an item when we traverse the parent list

parent_list = ['chicken', 'buffalo', ['cat', 'dog'], 'pork']
for (i, item) in enumerate(parent_list):
    print(str(i) + ': ' + str(parent_list[i]))

0: chicken 1: buffalo 2: ['cat', 'dog'] 3: pork

Delete items from list

del listVar[i]: delete the item i^{th} from list
del listVar[i:j]: delete the items from i^{th} to (j-1)^{th} from list

# [1, 3, 7, 2, 10]
del my_list[2]
my_list

[1, 3, 2, 10]

del my_list[1:3]
my_list

[1, 10]

Methods on list

list.append(value): appends element to end of the list
list.count(x): counts the number of occurrences of x in the list
list.index(x): returns the 1st index of x in the list
list.insert(i, x): inserts x at location $ i^{th} $
list.pop(): returns last element then removes it from the list
list.remove(x): finds and removes first x from list
list.reverse(): reverses the elements in the list
list.sort(): sorts the list alphabetically in ascending order, or numerical in ascending order
list1 + list2: merge 2 list

my_list = [1, 3, 7, 2, 10]
my_list.append(3)
my_list

[1, 3, 7, 2, 10, 3]

my_list.count(3)

my_list.index(3) 
# my_list.index(100) -> error because 100 does not exist in my_list

# [1, 3, 7, 2, 10, 3]
my_list.insert(3, 50)
my_list

[1, 3, 7, 50, 2, 10, 3]

a = my_list.pop()
a  # my_list will be: [1, 3, 7, 50, 2, 10]

my_list.append(3)   # [1, 3, 7, 50, 2, 10, 3]
my_list.remove(3)   # remote the 1st item only
my_list

[1, 7, 50, 2, 10, 3]

my_list.reverse()
my_list

[3, 10, 2, 50, 7, 1]

my_list.sort()
my_list

[1, 2, 3, 7, 10, 50]

total_list = my_list + [3, 5, 4]
total_list

[1, 2, 3, 7, 10, 50, 3, 5, 4]

Note that when we assign a list to a new variable, the two variables point to the same reference of the same list. So, every change on one variables will affect the other.

new_list = my_list
new_list

[1, 2, 3, 7, 10, 50]

my_list.remove(3)

new_list

[1, 2, 7, 10, 50]

If we want to clone a totally new list, we should use the list function

new_list = list(my_list)
new_list

[1, 2, 7, 10, 50]

my_list.remove(10)
my_list

[1, 2, 7, 50]

new_list

[1, 2, 7, 10, 50]

3.4 String

String work as a sequence of characters like list

animal = 'tiger'
animal[3]   # 3th character

'e'

len(animal)

animal[-1]  # last character

'r'

Access characters of string through slice operator like list

animal[1:3] # ig
animal[:3]  # tig
animal[1:]  # iger
animal[:]   # tiger

'tiger'

Scan through all characters of a string

for l in animal:
    print(l)

t i g e r

Basic functions on string

string.count('x') - counts the number of occurrences of 'x' in stringVar
string.find('x') - returns the 1st position of character 'x'
string.lower() - returns the stringVar in lowercase (this is temporary)
string.upper() - returns the stringVar in uppercase (this is temporary)
string.replace('a', 'b') - replaces all occurrences of a with b in the string
string.strip() - removes leading/trailing white space from string

animal = 'elephant'
animal.count('e')

animal.find('e')

animal.upper()

'ELEPHANT'

'ELEPHANT'.lower()

'elephant'

animal.replace('e', 'a')

'alaphant'

animal = '  elephant '
animal.strip()

'elephant'

3.5 Tuple

A tuple in Python is a sequence of values that are immutable. Values of a tuple are seperated by comma.

tup = ('one', 1)  #2-tuple
tup

('one', 1)

tup = ('John', 25, 180)  #3-tuple
tup

('John', 25, 180)

Like list, values of a tuple can be accessed through index

tup[0]

'John'

tup[2]

180

Get number of elements in tuple

len(tup)

However, we cannot delete or update elements from a tuple because tuple is immutable

# del tup[1] -> error
# tup[1] = 26 -> error

Loop through elements in a tuple

for item in tup:
    print(item)

John 25 180

3.6 Dictionary

Dictionary in Python is a datatype that maps hashable values to objects. Dictionary works as hashtable as in other language.

Creating dictionary

Create dictionary from key/value pairs. If keys are string, quotes are required

my_dict = {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3}
my_dict

{'one': 1, 'three': 3, 'two': 2}

Dictionary keys may be integers or floats

another_dict = {1: 'one', 2: 'two', 3: 'three', 3.14: 'pi'}
another_dict

{1: 'one', 2: 'two', 3: 'three', 3.14: 'pi'}

Create dictionary from dict function with named parameters.

my_dict = dict(one=1, two=2, three=3)
my_dict

{'one': 1, 'three': 3, 'two': 2}

dict function also accept key/value pairs

my_dict = dict({'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3})
my_dict

{'one': 1, 'three': 3, 'two': 2}

Create dictionary from a list of tuples

my_dict = dict([('one', 1), ('two', 2), ('three', 3)])
my_dict

{'one': 1, 'three': 3, 'two': 2}

Accessing dictionary values

Get value from a key

my_dict['one']

Check the existence of keys

'three' in my_dict

True

'four' in my_dict

False

Get number of pairs in dictionary

len(my_dict)

Changing dictionary

Update value of a key

my_dict['one'] = 'ichi'
my_dict

{'one': 'ichi', 'three': 3, 'two': 2}

Add new key to a dictionary

my_dict['four'] = 4
my_dict

{'four': 4, 'one': 'ichi', 'three': 3, 'two': 2}

Delete values from dictionary

del my_dict['two']
my_dict

{'four': 4, 'one': 'ichi', 'three': 3}

Iterating in dictionary

for k in my_dict:
    print(k + ': ' + str(my_dict[k]))

four: 4
three: 3
one: ichi

for k,v in my_dict.items():
    print(k + ': ' + str(v))

four: 4
three: 3
one: ichi

Functions on dictionary

dict.keys(): get all keys of the dictionary (return list)
dict.values(): get all values of the dictionary (return list)
dict.items(): get a list of pairs
dict.iteritems(): get item iterator for the dictionary. This is used for iterating only.
dict.iterkeys(): get key iterator for the dictionary. This is used for iterating only.
dict.itervalues(): get value iterator for the dictionary. This is used for iterating only.
dict.update(new_dict): update a dictionary with some new key/value paris
dict.copy(): clone dict1 —> the return dict is independent from the original one.
dict.clear(): delete all keys, or reset the dictionary

my_dict = {'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3}
my_dict.keys()

['three', 'two', 'one']

my_dict.values()

[3, 2, 1]

my_dict.items()

[('three', 3), ('two', 2), ('one', 1)]

for k, v in my_dict.iteritems():
    print(k + ': ' + str(v))

three: 3 two: 2 one: 1

for k in my_dict.iterkeys():
    print(k)

three two one

for v in my_dict.itervalues():
     print v

3 2 1

my_dict.update(one='ichi', five='go')
my_dict

{'five': 'go', 'one': 'ichi', 'three': 3, 'two': 2}

my_dict.update({'two':'ni', 'six':'roku'})
my_dict

{'five': 'go', 'one': 'ichi', 'six': 'roku', 'three': 3, 'two': 'ni'}

Note that when we assign a dict to a new variable, the two variables point to the same reference of the same dict. So, every change on one variables will affect the other.

new_dict = my_dict

my_dict['one'] = 'ichi'
my_dict

{'five': 'go', 'one': 'ichi', 'six': 'roku', 'three': 3, 'two': 'ni'}

new_dict

{'five': 'go', 'one': 'ichi', 'six': 'roku', 'three': 3, 'two': 'ni'}

If we want to clone a totally new dict, we should use copy function

new_dict = my_dict.copy()

my_dict.clear()
my_dict

{}

new_dict

{'five': 'go', 'one': 'ichi', 'six': 'roku', 'three': 3, 'two': 'ni'}

3.7 Set Set can be considered as dictionary without value

Creating set

my_set = set()

my_set = {1, 5, 3, 8}

my_set = set([1, 5, 3, 8])
my_set

{1, 3, 5, 8}

Add item to set

my_set.add(9)
my_set

{1, 3, 5, 8, 9}

Remove an item from set

my_set.remove(8)
my_set

{1, 3, 5, 9}

Note that set does not maintain items in order, so we cannot access set items through index.

# my_set[1] -> error

Get number of items from set

len(my_set)

Operations on set

a & b: return intersection of a & b, <=> a.intersection(b)
a | b: return union of a & b, <=> a.union(b)
a - b: return the difference of a & b, <=> a.difference(b)
a ^ b: return the exclusive of a & b, <=> a.symmetric_difference(b)
a == b: return whether a & b are the same set
a <= b: check whether a is a subset of b or not, <=> a.issubset(b)
a >= b: check whether a is a superset of b or not, <=> a.issuperset(b)

a = {1, 3, 4, 5}
b = {1, 3, 6}

a & b

{1, 3}

a | b

{1, 3, 4, 5, 6}

a - b

{4, 5}

a ^ b

{4, 5, 6}

a == b

False

# a = {1, 3, 4, 5}
c = {1, 3, 4, 5}
a == c

True

a = {1, 3, 4, 5}
b = {1, 3, 6}
a <= b

False

d = {1, 5, 4, 7, 3}
a <= d

True

a <= c

True

a > c

False

a >= c

True

3.8 Type conversion

int('5')

float('5.6')

5.6

str(5.7)

'5.7'

str(7)

'7'

str([1, 3, 5])

'[1, 3, 5]'

set([1, 3, 5, 3])

{1, 3, 5}

list({'one': 1, 'two': 2, 'three': 3})

['three', 'two', 'one']

list({'one', 'two', 'three'})

['one', 'three', 'two']

list(('one', 'two', 'three'))

['one', 'two', 'three']

tuple([1, 3, 5, 3])

(1, 3, 5, 3)

dict([('one', 1), ('two', 2), ('three', 3)])

{'one': 1, 'three': 3, 'two': 2}

Control statements

4.1 IF statement

if .. else
if .. elif .. else: substitute for switch .. case statement in other languages

a = 5
if a == 5:
    print('a if five')
else:
    print('a if five')

a if five

a = 6
if a == 5:
    print('a if five')
elif a > 5:
    print('a is greater than five')
else:
    print('a is less than five')

a is greater than five

Logical phrases in conditional statement can be combined with logical operators and, or, not

a = 5 
b = 7
if a == 5 and b > 6:
    print("Matched!")
else:
    print("NOT Matched!")

Matched!

if not(a == 5) or (b <= 6):
    print("Matched!")
else:
    print("NOT Matched!")

NOT Matched!

4.2 FOR loop

Loop through 0 -> n-1

n = 3
for i in range(n):
    print(i)

0 1 2

range function return list of items in a specific segment

range(5)

[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

range(2, 5)

[2, 3, 4]

Loop through items of a list

words = ['We', 'are', 'learning', 'Python']
for w in words:
    print(w)

We are learning Python

4.3 WHILE loop

i = 0
while i < 4:
    print(i)
    i += 1

0 1 2 3

4.4 ELSE clause

ELSE clause in FOR loop is executed after the last iteration

for w in words:
    print(w)
else:
    print('Out of word')

We are learning Python Out of word

ELSE clause in WHILE loop is executed after the last ieteration

i = 0
while i < 4:
    print(i)
    i += 1
else:
    print('Finished while')

0 1 2 3 Finished while

4.5 BREAK statement

Exit the current loop

for i in range(1, 5):
    if i % 3 == 0:
        break;
    else:
        print(i)

1 2

4.6 CONTINUE statement

Ignore the rest of code in current iteration and jump to the next iteration

for i in range(5):
    if i % 2 == 0:
        continue;
    else:
        print(i)
    # Do something more here

1 3

4.7 PASS statement

pass is just a command that do nothing. It is used a place that requires at least 1 command, but we don't want to do nothing there

# Here, I want to demonstrate the syntax of FOR loop but I dont't want to output anything to save space
for i in range(10):  
    pass

Comprehension

5.1 List comprehension

x = [1, 2, 4, 5]
x_square = [i * i for i in x]
x_square

[1, 4, 16, 25]

Syntax of the above comprehension is very close to that of x_square definition in math:

x_{square} = \{i^2\ |\ i \in x \}

city = 'tokyo'
upper = [s.capitalize() for s in city]
upper

['T', 'O', 'K', 'Y', 'O']

Using if in list comprehension. In case the if clause is placed before the for clause, else is required.

contents = ['Ministerium für Land- und Forstwirtschaft und Fischerei', 'Jahr', 'Selbstversorgungsrate von Lebensmitteln','Verbrauch']
indices = [i if w == 'Verbrauch' else None for i, w in enumerate(contents)]
print(indices)

[None, None, None, 3]

In case the if clause is placed after the for clause, else can be omitted.

indices = [i for i, w in enumerate(contents) if w == 'Verbrauch']
print(indices)

[3]

5.2 Dict comprehension

upper_count = {s.capitalize(): city.count(s) for s in city}
upper_count

{'K': 1, 'O': 2, 'T': 1, 'Y': 1}

5.3 Set comprehension

upper_set = {s.capitalize() for s in city}
upper_set

{'K', 'O', 'T', 'Y'}

Function

Use def to define function. The syntax as the following:

def function_name(parameters):
    command block

Function without parameter

def simple_func():
    print("First line from simple_func")
    print("Second line from simple_func")
    
simple_func()

First line from simple_func Second line from simple_func

Function with parameter

def sum(a, b):
    return a + b
sum(10, 5)

Default parameter value

def sum_with_def(a, b=0):
    return a + b
sum_with_def(10)

Positional arguments: order of parameters is used

def menu(drink, entree, dessert):
    print('Drink: %s' % drink)
    print('Entree: %s' % entree)
    print('Dessert: %s' % dessert)
my_menu = menu('champagne', 'chicken', 'cake')

Drink: champagne Entree: chicken Dessert: cake

Keyword arguments: name of parameters is used

mime = menu(dessert='cake', drink='champagne', entree='chicken')

Drink: champagne Entree: chicken Dessert: cake

Gather positional arguments with *

def print_pos_argument(*args): # args will be a tuple
    print(args)
    
print_pos_argument(1, 3, 'abc')
print_pos_argument('champagne', 'chicken', 'cake')

(1, 3, 'abc') ('champagne', 'chicken', 'cake')

Gather keyword arguments with **

def print_keyword_arguments(**args): # args will be a dictionary
    print(args)

print_keyword_arguments(dessert='cake', drink='champagne', entree='chicken')

{'dessert': 'cake', 'drink': 'champagne', 'entree': 'chicken'}

Function as parameter

def add(a, b):
    return a + b

def call_something(func, a, b):
    return func(a, b)

value = call_something(add, 4, 5)
value

Inner function

def twice_of_sum(a, b):
    def sum(c, d):
        return c + d
    return a + b + sum(a, b)

value = twice_of_sum(4, 5)
value

Lambda: anonymous function

g = lambda x: x ** 2
g(3)

def edit_story(words, func):
    for w in words:
        print(func(w))

stairs = ['thud', 'meow', 'thud', 'hiss']
edit_story(stairs, lambda x: x.capitalize() + '!') #Thud! ¥n Meow! ¥n Thud! ¥n Hiss!

Thud! Meow! Thud! Hiss!

map(lambda x: x * x, [1, 2, 3, 4])

[1, 4, 9, 16]

Python-Grundnotiz - Teil 1